4th July 2024

Diagnosis

CKD is often asymptomatic, particularly in the early stages. Symptoms tend to occur in association with complications.  The most common of those are hormonal and metabolic complications such as anaemia, hyperparathyroidism and risks associated with systemic drug toxicity, cardiovascular disease, and infection. End-stage renal failure (ESRF) generally refers to CKD requiring dialysis or transplantation.