24th November 2023

Development of Ego Identity in Adolescence and Adulthood

Erikson’s stages of human development

Erikson is one of the most important and influential theorist in the area of ego development, which can be understood as ‘a sense of wholeness involving the exploration of one’s abilities and interests, resulting in a crystallised identity in various domains such as personal, religious and occupational’ (Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 2011).

Jane Loevinger’s 9 stages of ego and personal identity development 

Loevinger, who worked with Erikson at an early stage in her career, proposed the following stages in ego development, which she saw as a process which emerges based on the encounters of the individual with the world and people in it.

• Personal – In the infancy phase, the person has no individual identity and is at the mercy of the world around them.
• Impulsive – As a child grows older, it is driven initially by emotions and is focused only on the present. Understands the world in binary terms of ‘good’ and ‘bad’.
• Self protective – As the child develops some sense of their own identity, they develop more sense of self control. Views the world in terms of punishment and reward.
• Conformist – With age, there is a growing awareness of the need to fit in with the ideas of the group or face suspicion.
• Self aware – Loevinger felt this stage was the model for most adult behaviour. Not generally reached before age 25. Increasing self criticism and awareness of the difference between the externally projected ‘self’ and the internal sense of self.
• Conscientious – At this stage, an individual has internalised the ideals of societal norms. However, there is more awareness of nuance and a sense of responsibility for the decisions and actions taken by the self. More able to assess others in terms of their inner motivations and their external actions.
• Individualistic – The individual at this stage has more tolerance for individual differences and awareness of the complexities of the inner experience and how these might be expressed (or not) outwardly in others and self.
• Anonymous – Focus shifts to greater self acceptance and achieving a sense of self fulfilment.
• Integrated – Can be compared to ‘self actualisation’ as perceived by Maslow in his hierarchy of needs. Whereby the individual has achieved inner wisdom and empathy for others along with self acceptance. As with Maslow, Loevinger felt that very few achieve this stage.

Other theories of identity development

Vaillant

Emphasised ‘resilience’ as a modification to Erikson and introduced ‘career consolidation’ and ‘keeper of the meaning’ as new substages in adulthood. This latter stage, Vaillant proposed, is motivated mostly by altruism and the drive to improve the individual’s wellbeing.

Jeffrey Arnett

Coined the term ‘emerging adulthood’ to encompass the ‘new transitional developmental period’ between ages 17-22 and proposed that key transition points can produce psychological distress.

Neugarten – Social clock theory 

Proposed that the timing of life events is ‘entrenched’ and based on ‘age graded expectations of life events,’ i.e., social norms are the driving force rather than biological age. Deviation from this can lead to stress.

Havighurst, Neugarten et al. – Continuity theory 

Proposes that personality influences the roles we choose and is well developed by the time we reach old age:

• Integrated personality – Adjusted well to ageing, evidenced by activity engagement.
• Disintegrated or unintegrated – Failure to cope with ageing leads to struggle.
• Armoured or defended – Continue with activities and roles held in middle age.
• Passive-dependent – Either highly dependent or not interested in the external world.

Gould – Inevitable turmoil theory

Proposes that an adult must ‘give up various illusions of childhood’ to develop as an adult.

Identified certain age related changes:

• 16-22 years – Leaving parents.
• 22- 28 years – Getting into the world.
• 28-34 years – Questioning life.
• 35-45 – Midlife.
• Reconciliation.
• Acceptance.

Identity stability

Marcia – Identities in adult life

Identified 2 elements in identity formation:

• ‘Crises’ which is a ‘period of self evaluation’ followed then by:
• ‘Commitment’ to a ‘new value, role, goal or ideology’ through which identity status emerges.

Marcia identified 4 identity statuses:

• Achievement – The individual has explored alternatives and commits to a particular identity.
• Diffusion – An individual has yet to explore different identities or invest in one in particular.
• Foreclosure – An individual commits to an identity without exploring others. There is a link between this identity status and authoritative parenting.
• Moratorium – An individual is in the midst of exploring alternatives without a clear sense of commitment to any identity in particular. Seen particularly in the adolescent mind (identity versus role confusion – Erikson’s stage).

Levinson – Seasons of life 

• Levinson identified 4 stable periods and 3 transition periods:
  • Stable periods
    • Childhood and adolescence.
    • Early adulthood.
    • Middle adulthood.
    • Late adulthood.
  • Transition periods
    • Early adult.
    • Midlife.
    • Late adult.
• Stable periods – Last around 20 years.
• Transition periods – Settled periods are disturbed by significant new challenges.

Levinson proposed that after each transition period follows a new stable period and the formation of a new life structure. A life structure encompasses ‘all of the roles the individual occupies, all his relationships and the conflicts and balances that exist among them’.

Midlife crisis

The term ‘midlife crisis’ was coined by psychoanalyst and social scientist Eliot Jaques in 1965 and reinforced by Levinson. Links with Erikson’s stages of development (generativity versus stagnation).

According to Jaques, this period, which occurs around the age of 35, is characterised by an adjustment to an individual’s set of circumstances (work, family, children growing older) and managing associated stressors, in combination with the ageing process, provokes ‘awareness of the reality of death’. Psychological immaturity provokes the key features of a ‘mid life crisis’ such as a sense of disillusionment with life, infidelity and detachment from family life, and a determination to ‘thwart advancing years’, e.g. through relationships with a younger person, are evidence of this.

Jaques wrote: ‘The compulsive attempts […] to remain young, the hypochondriacal concern over health and appearance, the emergence of sexual promiscuity in order to prove youth and potency, the hollowness and lack of genuine enjoyment of life […] are familiar patterns. They are attempts at a race against time’.

Characteristics of ‘midlife crisis’:

• Questioning.
• Appraisal. 
• Loss of dreams leading to disillusionment, suffering, loss.

Evidence for the presence of a ‘midlife crisis’ has been suggested in increased rates of depression and anxiety relating to key life events at this time.