24th October 2023

Learning Theory

Behaviourism

Behaviourism is a school of thought popularised in the 1920s, initially through the work of John Watson. The key idea behind behaviourism is that human behaviour can be explained purely through environmental interactions without any consideration for cognitive factors or internal processes.

Behaviourists employ reductionism in their studies; this is the view that all human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into its component parts, reducing it to the most basic stimulus-response system. These ideas can then be used to make predictions about behaviour.

Classical and operant conditioning, explored over the following pages, are theories born from behaviourism.

Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning, a theory of learning popularised by Russian physiologist and psychologist Ivan Pavlov in the 1920s, refers to the acquisition of a new behaviour through association between two stimuli.

A specific set of terminology is used to refer to the various stimuli and responses involved in classical conditioning. These are as follows:

• Stimulus – Anything present in the environment that has the potential to evoke a specific reaction.
• Unconditioned stimulus (US) – An environmental stimulus that, without learning, evokes an automatic behavioural response (unconditioned response).
• Neutral stimulus (NS) – Any stimulus that does not automatically evoke a response.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) – This is what the neutral stimulus becomes when paired with the unconditioned stimulus to evoke a conditioned response.
• Unconditioned response (UR) – The natural response evoked by an unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned response (CR) – The learned response evoked by the conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov’s dogs

To demonstrate how classical conditioning works, we will discuss Pavlov’s famous experiments with dogs. Whilst studying the digestive process of dogs, Pavlov noticed that when presented with food, the animals would salivate. He observed that over time, the dogs would begin to salivate not only when visibly presented with food but prior to this, as the food was arriving. Pavlov hypothesised that the dogs had begun to pick up on the various cues indicating that a meal was arriving and that these cues in themselves generated a physical response.

Pavlov tested his theory using a bell as a neutral stimulus. Prior to conditioning, he first presented the dogs with food (US), which resulted in salivation (UR). The next stage of the experiment again involved presenting food to the dogs, but this time paired with the ringing of a bell just beforehand. The bell (NS) at first evoked no response in the dogs. However, after repeated exposures to the pairing of food and bell (conditioning), Pavlov noticed that the dogs salivated as soon as they heard the bell ringing, even before the food was presented.

Eventually, the dogs were observed to salivate in response to the sound of the bell in isolation, even when not paired with food presentation. The neutral stimulus (ringing bell) has become a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response (salivation).

Timing of stimulus presentation

• Forward / Delayed conditioning – When the neutral stimulus is presented first, with a short delay before the unconditioned stimulus is presented. This is the most effective method of classical conditioning, with an optimum delay of 0.5 seconds between stimuli presentation.
• Trace conditioning – The neutral stimulus is presented first but removed before the unconditioned stimulus is presented.
• Backward conditioning – Where the neutral stimulus is presented after the unconditioned stimulus. This is widely regarded as a less effective method of conditioning.
• Simultaneous conditioning – Both neutral and unconditioned stimuli are presented at the same time.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons (2016). Classical Conditioning Diagram, Licensed under a creative commons licence. Available for free at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Classical_Conditioning_Diagram.png (Accessed on: 17 October 2023).

Additional points

• Extinction occurs in classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, leading to a weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response over time. In the example of Pavlov’s dogs, if the bell were repeatedly presented without food, the dogs would eventually stop salivating in response.
• Spontaneous recovery can occur after extinction if the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus are again paired together, leading to a rapid reinstatement of the conditioned response.
• Incubation occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented again after a prolonged absence, resulting in a heightened response. For example, the incubation of fear can result in a delayed presentation of symptoms in PTSD.
• Counterconditioning is where the conditioned stimulus is paired with an alternative stimulus that induces an opposite effect. This technique can be used in the treatment of phobias. For example, a child who is afraid of spiders is presented with a pleasing stimulus, such as a chocolate bar alongside the spider.
• Higher order conditioning describes the process whereby a second (and third, fourth, etc.) neutral stimulus is paired with the conditioned stimulus, leading to each new stimulus also being conditioned. For example, Pavlov tested this by shining a light before ringing the bell and found that eventually, the dogs would salivate in response to the light alone.
• Stimulus preparedness refers to the way in which certain stimuli are naturally more easily conditioned than others. For example, this is why we are more likely to develop phobias to snakes and spiders than to flowers.

Little Albert

‘Little Albert’ was a 9 month old boy involved in a series of experiments conducted by Watson & Raynor in 1919-1920. These experiments demonstrate the role that classical conditioning plays in the development of fear in humans.

At the beginning of the study, Albert’s response to various neutral stimuli (including a rat, a rabbit and a monkey) was tested, with Albert seen to show no significant response to any of the stimuli. It was, however, noted that Albert was startled by loud noises (an unconditioned stimuli), which led him to burst into tears (an unconditioned response).

In the next stage of the experiment, a rat was presented to Albert, and seconds later, a hammer was struck on steel to create a loud noise. With repeated exposures (conditioning) over several weeks, Albert was soon observed to demonstrate a fear response to the rat alone, in isolation from the loud noise.

Through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (a loud noise), the rat, once a neutral stimulus, has become a conditioned stimulus, evoking a conditioned fear response. This demonstrates how phobias can be generated through classical conditioning.

Stimulus generalisation occurs when a stimulus that is similar to (but not the same as) the conditioned stimulus evokes a response. This was seen in the Little Albert experiment, where Albert later demonstrated a fear response to stimuli such as the family dog and a fur coat due to being unable to discriminate them from the rat. The opposite of this phenomena is called stimulus discrimination.

Cue exposure therapy

Cue exposure therapy is a cognitive-behavioural technique based in classical conditioning used in the psychological treatment of substance misuse disorders. Individuals who misuse substances will associate various cues with substance misuse. In alcohol misuse, for example, cues may include being in a pub, being in the company of certain people, or the smell of alcohol.

When encountered, these cues can perpetuate and heighten the craving experienced by an individual. The idea behind CET is that repeated exposure to cues, coupled with resistance to undesirable behaviour, will reduce the intensity of craving and reduce the risk of relapse. During CET, the individual is repeatedly exposed to the identified cues until the intensity of craving reduces.

References

• Mcleod, S. (2023). Classical Conditioning: How It Works With Examples. Simply Psychology. Available online at: https://simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html [Accessed Feb 2023]
• Mcleod, S. (2023). Little Albert Experiment (Watson & Rayner). Simply Psychology. Available online at: https://simplypsychology.org/little-albert.html [Accessed March 2023]
• Nickerson, C. (2023). Learned Helplessness Theory In Psychology (Seligman): Examples & Coping. Simply Psychology. Available online at: https://www.simplypsychology.org/learned-helplessness.html [Accessed March 2023]
• Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: an Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. Oxford Univ. Press.
• Rehman I., Mahabadi N., Sanvictores T. et al. Classical Conditioning. (2022). StatPearls. Treasure Island.
• Rosenber, H. (2002). Controlled Drinking. Encyclopaedia of Psychotherapy. 533-544.
• Seligman, M.E.P., Maier, S. (1967) Failure to Escape Traumatic Shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(1): 1–9.
• Watson JB, Rayner R (1920) Conditioned Emotional Reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1): 1–14.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a theory of learning associated with B.F. Skinner. Skinner felt that the complexities of human behaviour could not be adequately explained by classical conditioning. He theorised that the consequences of a behaviour influence its repetition, resulting in either the reinforcement or reduction of a particular behaviour.

Skinner’s work was influenced by Thorndike’s Law of Effect, which states that a behaviour associated with positive consequences will be repeated, whereas a behaviour associated with negative consequences is less likely to be repeated. Thorndike demonstrated this by placing cats in enclosures and rewarding them with food when they pressed a lever, allowing them to escape the box. After receiving food as a reward, the cat would be placed back in the box. Thorndike noticed that the cats became quicker at pressing the lever with each trial due to the reward of food reinforcing their behaviour of pressing the lever.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is when a behaviour is associated with a consequence that makes the subject more likely to repeat the behaviour. Reinforcement can be positive or negative.

Positive reinforcement is when a behaviour is reinforced through association with a pleasant stimulus. For example, when a child is rewarded with an ice cream for doing homework.

Negative reinforcement is where a behaviour is reinforced through association with the withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus. For example, when a person with a headache takes paracetamol, it leads to relief from the headache. This is also known as escape conditioning; the behaviour is completed in order to end an unpleasant stimulus.

Avoidance conditioning is a type of negative reinforcement where a behaviour is performed in order to avoid an unpleasant stimulus occurring in the first place; the expectation of a particular stimulus results in avoidance behaviour. For example, if an electric shock is given to a rat each time they hear a bell ring, they will learn to move to a different part of the cage when they hear the bell.

Reinforcers can be primary or secondary:

• Primary reinforcers, for example, food and water, satisfy an innate need.
• Secondary reinforcers are not directly associated with an innate need. However, they are rewarded through their association with a primary reinforcer. A common example is money; not rewarding on its own but rewarding through the things that are gained with it.

Punishment

Punishment is when a behaviour is associated with a consequence that makes the subject less likely to repeat the behaviour – the behaviour is said to be weakened. Punishment can be positive or negative:

• Positive punishment is when a behaviour results in an unpleasant stimulus, leading to a reduction in the frequency of that behaviour. For example, when a person receives a fine for speeding. This principle is used in aversion therapy, where the aim is to reduce the frequency of a harmful behaviour – for example, the use of disulfiram for alcohol misuse. Disulfiram causes an unpleasant physical reaction when alcohol is consumed, thus reducing the frequency of a person’s alcohol consumption.
• Negative punishment is when a behaviour results in the withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus, also leading to a reduction in the frequency of the behaviour. For example, when a child has their video games taken off them for bad behaviour.

Skinner box

As part of his research into operant conditioning, Skinner conducted an experiment whereby animals (rats or pigeons) were placed in a chamber (‘Skinner box’), within which he would study the effect of reinforcement and punishment on certain behaviours.

Typically, within a Skinner box, there would be a lever, which, when pressed or pecked by the animal, would release a food pellet as a reward. The release of a food pellet produces positive reinforcement, with the animal being more likely to repeat the behaviour of pressing the lever. Alternatively, the floor of the box would be electrified, and only by pressing a lever would the animal be able to turn off the electric current. This is an example of negative reinforcement.

Another feature of the Skinner box tested the concept of punishment. In this experiment, on pressing a lever, the rat would receive an electric shock, making them less likely to press the lever again. This demonstrates the effects of positive punishment. Negative punishment was administered whereby food pellets would be given at regular intervals, then withheld when the rat pressed a lever. Both positive and negative punishment led to a reduction in the frequency of behaviour (pressing the lever).

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons (2021). Skinner box scheme 01, Licensed under a creative commons licence. Available for free at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Skinner_box_scheme_01.svg (Accessed on: 17 October 2023).

Reinforcement Schedules

As part of his behavioural experiments, Skinner also explored whether the way in which reinforcement is delivered would affect the strength of the resulting behaviour. Reinforcement schedules define which behaviours will be reinforced and when; these can be broadly divided into continuous and partial schedules.

Continuous schedules involve a reward produced in response to every instance of a desired behaviour (e.g., every time the rat presses the lever, it receives a food pellet). This type of schedule is learned quickly. However, it is also unlearned quickly and has the fastest extinction rate of all reinforcement schedules.

Partial schedules do not produce rewards for every instance of a desired behaviour. They are learned more slowly. However, they are more resistant to extinction. Partial schedules are subdivided as follows:

• Fixed interval schedule – Reinforcement is given after a fixed time period, regardless of the number of instances of the desired behaviour (so long as the behaviour has been performed at least once). E.g., the rat receives a food pellet every 5 minutes. Another example is being paid x amount of money per hour spent at work.
• Variable interval schedule – Reinforcement is given after at random, unpredictable time intervals; for example, in the Skinner box, a rat may receive a food pellet after 5 minutes initially, then after 3 minutes, then 15 minutes.
• Fixed ratio schedule – Reinforcement coincides with every nth incidence of desired behaviour, e.g., a food pellet is produced after every 5th press of the lever. Another example would be an individual being paid at work in a factory for every x number of items produced.
• Variable ratio schedule – Reinforcement is produced in response to a variable and unpredictable number of repetitions of the desired behaviour. This schedule is seen in gambling, e.g., a slot machine produces money after playing a random number of times. Variable ratio reinforcement produces behaviour that is very resistant to extinction, hence why gambling can be so addictive.

Shaping and chaining

Shaping refers to the way in which a more complex behaviour is reinforced by rewarding progressively closer approximations to the desired behaviour. For example, when a child learns to walk, praise is given to them first for crawling, then trying to stand, then finally walking.

Chaining is where complex tasks are broken down into steps, and each step in a sequence is rewarded until the desired behaviour is performed in full. For example, when teaching a child to make a cake, they are rewarded for adding the ingredients together, then for putting the batter in the oven, for taking the cake out of the oven, and finally for icing the cake.

Shaping and chaining are techniques that, as in the above examples, can be utilised in helping children to learn new skills and complex behaviours.

Covert conditioning

Covert conditioning refers to behavioural techniques in which behaviours are paired with mental images in order to either reinforce or reduce them.

In covert sensitisation, undesirable behaviour is imagined and paired with unpleasant mental imagery to try and reduce the frequency of said behaviour. For example, a smoker trying to quit may be asked to imagine themselves having a cigarette and then imagine receiving an electric shock.

In covert reinforcement, a desired behaviour is reinforced by asking the subject to imagine performing said behaviour, along with imagining a pleasant consequence.

Premack’s principle

Premack’s principle states that a desired low frequency behaviour can be reinforced by association with a high frequency behaviour. For example, a child can be encouraged to eat their vegetables (a desired but less probable behaviour) if their parent tells them that they can eat some chocolate afterwards (a more probable behaviour).

Learned helplessness

Learned helplessness is a theory suggested as an underlying mechanism for the development of depression, investigated by Seligman in the 1960s / 70s. Whilst looking into classical conditioning, Seligman observed that dogs subjected to unavoidable electrical shocks made no attempts to avoid or escape the unpleasant stimulus, even when there was the potential for avoidance/escape with subsequent shocks. He described this phenomenon as ‘learned helplessness’.

Seligman applied this theory to depression in humans, hypothesising that people who are repeatedly exposed to stressful life events over which they perceive they have no control become resigned to their situation and make no attempts to engage in purposeful behaviour as a result. Overall, however, it is widely agreed that the aetiology of depression is much more complex than this theory would suggest.

Phobias

The development of phobias can be explained through a combination of classical and operant conditioning. As demonstrated in Watson and Raynor’s experiment with Little Albert, a previously neutral stimulus, when associated with an unpleasant stimulus, can itself induce a fear response through classical conditioning.

If a young child is bitten by a dog, through the association of the dog (a previously neutral stimulus) with an aversive stimulus (being bitten), they may be conditioned to fear the dog itself.

This fear can then be maintained via operant conditioning: due to the association of dogs with being bitten, the child may continue to make efforts to avoid contact with dogs in order to avoid being bitten again. The anxiety and fear response that comes with being in the presence of a dog is removed through avoidance time and time again, thus negatively reinforcing the avoidance behaviour. This can lead to the maintenance of phobias in later life.

Cognitive behavioural methods are used in the treatment of phobias. Often, an anxiety hierarchy will be constructed, creating a hierarchy of anxiety-inducing situations relating to the focus of the phobia. In the above example, this might range from looking at a photograph of a dog (least anxiety) to being in a room with a dog (some anxiety) to petting a dog (most anxiety).

Systematic desensitisation involves working up the anxiety hierarchy whilst employing reciprocal inhibition at each stage (combining the phobic stimulus with a stimulus of the opposite effect, resulting in relaxation) until the most fear-inducing situation is reached.

Flooding is a technique that has been used in the treatment of phobias, in which the feared stimulus is presented directly and endured for an extended amount of time until the associated anxiety disappears. This, however, can be a very distressing experience for the subject. Implosion is a similar technique. However, it uses mental imagery in replacement of the feared stimulus itself.

Current CBT methods typically use a technique called graded exposure, based on the concept of habituation – whereby repeated exposure to a stimulus (working up the anxiety hierarchy) results in a reduction in the behavioural response. This method is similar to systematic desensitisation but does not involve the concurrent use of relaxation techniques.

References

• Mcleod, S. (2023). Operant Conditioning: What It Is, How It Works, And Examples. Simply Psychology. Available online at: https://simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html [Accessed Feb 2023]
• Nickerson, C. (2023). Skinner Box: What Is An Operant Conditioning Chamber? Simply Psychology. Available online at: https://simplypsychology.org/what-is-a-skinner-box.html [Accessed March 2023]
• Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: an Experimental Analysis. Appleton-Century.
• Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies. Macmillan Press.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognitive learning theory rose to prominence in the 1950s. In contrast to behaviourism, cognitive psychology takes into consideration the internal processes that contribute to learning, rejecting the idea that all behaviour can be explained simply as the result of stimulus-response mechanisms.

Cognitive psychologists believe that the mind acts like a computer in processing information; external inputs are taken in as information and undergo mediational processing, resulting in an output.

Cognitive psychologists believe that the study of these mediational processes (such as memory, judgement, problem solving and other mental processes) is essential to understanding behaviour.

Latent learning

Latent learning refers to information learned without reinforcement but not demonstrated until there is motivation to recall it.

Tolman investigated latent learning by observing rats placed in a maze. He used three groups of rats: the first group were rewarded each time for reaching the end of the maze; the second group received no reward for reaching the end; and the third group were rewarded, but only after an initial 10 days, during which they would not receive a reward for completing the maze.

Tolman found that the first group of rats quickly learned the maze route, whereas the second group took longer to reach the end since they had no motivation to do so. The third group at first learned slowly like the second group; however, as soon as they were rewarded on day 11, they quickly caught up with the first group in terms of their ability to recall the maze route.

Tolman used the term ‘cognitive map’ to describe an internal representation of the environment, which is used to reach a particular goal. He concluded that the rats in his experiment created cognitive maps of the maze, which they could then recall when motivated to do so by the introduction of a reward – as demonstrated by the second group of rats. This is the process of latent learning, whereby information is stored and recalled at a later time when there is motivation to do so.

Insight learning

Insight learning refers to the experience of a sudden realisation of the solution to a particular problem rather than any solution obtained through trial and error. This may be colloquially referred to as a ‘lightbulb moment’.

Köhler demonstrated insight learning through his work with chimpanzees. He presented the animals with complex problems, such as placing food in an out of reach area, and then observed how they went about solving the problem.

The chimps initially worked by trial and error. However, when this failed, they were observed to stop and contemplate. Köhler noted that after a while, the chimps seemed to have a ‘lightbulb moment’ in which they suddenly realised how to solve the problem – they might use a stick to knock the food down or stand on a piece of furniture in order to reach it. This sudden realisation is what Köhler referred to as insight learning.

References

• Kohler, W. (1925) The Mentality of Apes. Harcourt Brace and World.
• Mcleod, S. Latent Learning in Psychology and how it Works. Simply Psychology. Available online at: https://www.simplypsychology.org/tolman.html [Accessed March 2023]
• Mcleod, S. (2023). Cognitive Approach in Psychology. Simply Psychology. [Website: https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html]
• Stangor, C., Walinga, J. (2014). Learning by Insight and Observation. Introduction to Psychology – 1st Canadian Edition. 339-342.
• Tolman, E.C. (1948). Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men. Psychological Review, 55(4): 189–208.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory, hypothesised by Albert Bandura, is influenced by both Behaviourism and Cognitive Learning Theory. Whilst Bandura acknowledged the role of environmental factors in influencing behaviour, he also believed that cognitive factors played an important role.

Bobo Doll experiment

Bandura demonstrated observational learning through his Bobo Doll experiments in the 1960s. Bandura selected a group of 72 children aged between 3-6 years for the study.

In the first stage of the experiment, the children were split into three groups. The first group were asked to observe an adult model interacting with a bobo doll (a person sized inflatable toy doll). The model demonstrated aggressive behaviour towards the doll, attacking it both verbally and physically. The second group also observed an adult model in the room with the bobo doll; however, this time, the model mostly ignored the doll, behaving in a calm manner with no aggressive outbursts. A control group was also included, who were not exposed to a model at all.

In the second stage of the experiment, the children were subjected to ‘aggression arousal’. They were taken into a room full of toys, which they were told that they couldn’t play with, as they had been reserved for other children.

In the final stage, the children were taken into a second room containing toys, which they were informed they were allowed to play with. The toys ranged from neutral to aggressive in nature (for example, crayons and plastic animals vs. a toy gun and a bobo doll). The child was then observed in the room for a 20 minute period.

The main finding of the bobo doll experiment was that the children who had observed aggressive behaviour from the models initially were more likely to engage in aggressive behaviour themselves when left in the room with the bobo doll, compared to the non-aggressive and control groups.

In later experiments, Bandura found that children were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour if they observed this to be associated with a reward, and they were less likely to do so when they observed that the behaviour resulted in punishment. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

The results of Bandura’s experiment gave weight to his theory that human behaviour (in this case, aggression) can be learned through observation and imitation. This can be extrapolated to explain how children are influenced by the actions of individuals they are exposed to in society, for example, their family and peer groups.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons (2016). Bobo Doll Deneyi, Licensed under a creative commons licence. Available for free at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bobo_Doll_Deneyi.jpg (Accessed on: 17 October 2023).

Mediational processes

Social learning theory states that observational learning is mediated by cognitive processes, making it more complex than the behaviouralist approach. These processes reflect the individual weighing up the consequences of performing a behaviour and deciding whether the behaviour should be imitated or not.

Bandura identified four mediational processes that must occur for a behaviour to be imitated:

• Attention – An observed behaviour has to hold the individual’s attention.
• Retention – A behaviour can only be imitated if it is retained in memory.
• Reproduction – Refers to a person’s assessment of whether they would be physically able to imitate an observed behaviour.
• Motivation – The overall assessment of the risks versus benefits of performing a behaviour.

References

• Bandura, A., & Walters, R.H. (1963). Social Learning and Personality Development. Holt Rinehart and Winston: New York.
• Mcleod, S. (2023). Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. Simply Psychology. Available online at: https://simplypsychology.org/bandura.html [Accessed March 2023]
• Mcleod, S. (2023). Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment On Social Learning. Simply Psychology. Available online at: https://simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html [Accessed March 2023]