23rd November 2023

Parenting and Temperament

Individual Temperamental Differences and Their Impact on Parent-child Relationships

‘The infant’s temperament regulates, and it is regulated by the actions of others from the earliest hours.’ – Rothbart

Origins, typologies and stability of temperament 

The debate on nature versus nurture has been ongoing for ages, and it is now widely accepted that both biology and environment play a role in shaping a child’s development. For the purpose of this book, we define temperament as the basic predisposition that underlies children’s behaviour. 

Temperament is believed to be largely influenced by genetics, with studies indicating that up to 60% of individuals’ differences in temperament can be attributed to genetic factors. Environmental factors, including parenting practices and experiences, also play a role in shaping temperament.

One of the main studies in this field is the New York longitudinal study by Thomas and Chess. This is a thirty years (initially six years) longitudinal study of 138 children, observing childhood temperaments during their infancy and followed up at 5, 18 and 22 years. Infants vary in their autonomic reactivity and temperament. Following this study, temperament has been characterised using a variety of typologies. Differences among infants that can be observed have typically been described by using nine behavioural dimensions:

• Distractibility.
• Adaptability.
• Attention span. 
• Intensity.
• Threshold of responsiveness.
• Quality of mood.
• Rhythmicity.
• Approach/withdrawal.

According to Chess and Thomas, children’s temperament can be classified into easy, slow-to-warm-up and difficult.

• Children with ‘easy’ temperament – (40% of all children) are characterised by a positive mood and react positively to stimuli; they are also often described as more adaptable.
• Children with a ‘slow-to-warm up’ temperament – (15% of children) display initial withdrawal to new situations combined with slow adaptability and mild intensity. 
• ‘Difficult’ children (10% of all children) are characterised by intense mood, arousal and reaction. These characteristics can be very stressful for parents to handle. Children with a difficult temperament often have trouble falling asleep and staying asleep.

These typologies describe a child’s reactivity and approach to new situations and environments and can be useful in understanding a child’s temperament and the potential impact of parenting practices. 

Chess and Thomas were among the first researchers to credit children as contributors to their own development – not as passive recipients of caregiving. They described how bi-directional transactions between children and their parents influenced each other’s behaviour. 

The interaction between the child’s temperament and the environment was conceptualised within:

•  A ‘goodness of fit’ framework – If there is a match between an individual’s temperament and the environment, optimal development can be achieved.
• ‘Poorness of fit’ – Conversely, it leads to maladaptive functioning.

Several studies have evaluated the stability of temperament profiles in toddlers. The results of these studies suggest that temperaments are believed to be relatively stable over time, with individual differences in temperament becoming more pronounced as children grow and develop. However, environmental factors, including parenting practices, can have an impact on the expression of temperament and can help to shape a child’s personality and character over time.

The evolution of character and personality

The evolution of character and personality during parenting is a complex subject. Temperament provides a foundation for personality development. Also, environmental experiments, including parenting practices, can shape and mould personality as children grow and develop. Biological inheritance is one of the key factors, and it constricts how our characters manifest themselves. Unlike genetics, environmental factors operate within the trait range, and it is these factors that create the synergistic combination of traits.

According to the Big Five personality trait theory, personality can be divided into five broad categories: 

• Openness to experience (O)
• Conscientiousness (C)
• Extraversion (aka surgency) (E)
• Agreeableness (A)
• Neuroticism (aka emotional stability) (N)

Therefore, the mnemonic OCEAN. 

Further models include the EAS. This is a developmental, multidimensional, and causal personality model described by Buss and Plomin. The acronym EAS refers to three basic dimensions: emotionality, activity, and sociability. They manifest before socialisation, persist later in life, and show substantial heritability. The dimensions of the EAS are considered stable. The initial model of Buss and Plomin featured four temperamental dimensions: emotionality, activity, sociability and impulsivity.

Childhood vulnerability and resilience concerning mental health 

Childhood is a critical period in developing an individual’s mental health and well-being. Parenting practices and temperament can both play a role in shaping a child’s vulnerability and resilience to stress and adversity. 

It is now generally agreed that individual differences in child temperament are somewhat predictive of later development and psychiatric risk. 

A range of factors, including genetics, experiences of trauma, and parenting practices, can influence vulnerability to mental health problems. Children with a temperament characterised by high levels of reactivity and negative emotionality may be at increased risk for mental health problems, especially in the absence of supportive and nurturing parenting practices. 

Research has shown that parenting practices such as parental warmth, emotional availability and positive reinforcement can help to build resilience in children, while practices such as neglect, harsh discipline and inconsistency can increase vulnerability. 

Children with resilient temperaments and supportive and nurturing parenting practices may be better equipped to handle stress and adversity and to recover from setbacks. However, even children with vulnerable temperaments can develop resilience with the support of positive parenting practices. 

References

• Rothbart, M. K. (1989). Temperament and development. In G. A. Kohnstamm, J. E. Bates, & M. K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 195). Chichester, England: Wiley. 
• Denis Bratko, Ana Butković, Tena Vukasović Hlupić (2017). Heritability of personality. Psychological Topics, 26 (2017), 1, 1-24 
• Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel. 
• Thomas, A., Chess, S., & Birch, H. G. (1968). Temperament and behaviour disorders in children. New York: New York University Press. 
• Thomas, A., Chess, S., Birch, H. G., Hertzig, M. E., & Korn, S. (1963). Behavioural individuality in early childhood. New York: New York University Press. 
• Evelyn Holt Otten. (2002) Developing Character through Literature: A Teacher’s Resource Book. ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English and Communication, Indiana University. 
• Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 
• Buss, D. M. (1981). Predicting parent-child interactions from children’s activity level. Developmental Psychology, 17, No I, 59-65. 
• Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316-331. 

Aspects of Family Relationships and Parenting Practices

The influence of parental attitudes compared with parenting practices 

Parental attitudes towards their children can have a profound impact on their development. Parents who have high expectations for their children and are supportive of their needs and goals are more likely to raise children with positive outcomes. Conversely, parents who are critical or uninvolved in their children’s lives may contribute to negative outcomes. 

During the 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study on more than 100 preschool-age children (Baumrind, 1967). She identified four important dimensions of parenting: disciplinary strategies, warmth and nurturance, communication styles, expectations of maturity and control. Parenting practices refer to the specific actions parents take to raise their children. This includes discipline, communication style and the amount of attention and affection given to children. Some research has shown that certain parenting practices, such as warm and responsive parenting, are associated with positive outcomes for children. 

Based on these, Baumrind suggested that most parents fall into one of three parenting styles (the fourth category was added by Maccoby & Martin, 1983): 

• Authoritarian parenting – Characterised by strict rules and punishment if the rules are not adhered to. Explanations behind the rules are often lacking. These parents are focused on status and obedience. Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to obedient and proficient children but rank lower in happiness, social competence and self-esteem.
• Authoritative parenting – Similar to authoritarian parents except that they tend to be more responsive to their children. There are strict rules, but explanations behind them are given. When children fail to meet expectations, they are nurtured rather than punished. The focus here is on setting standards but also being supportive. Authoritative parenting styles tend to result in happy, capable and successful children.
• Permissive parenting – Rarely discipline their children. They avoid confrontation and allow their children to self regulate. Permissive parents prefer to take the role of a friend rather than a disciplinarian. They often result in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school.
• Uninvolved parenting – Characterised by little involvement and few demands. Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem and are less competent than their peers.

The influence of parental attitudes and parenting practices on a child’s temperament can be seen throughout their development. For example, children raised in supportive and responsive environments are more likely to develop self-esteem and resilience. Conversely, children raised in environments that are overly restrictive or neglectful may struggle with emotional regulation and self-esteem. 

The task for parents in thinking about temperament is to take their child’s particular characteristics into consideration in choosing strategies to soothe, control and stimulate their child and in arranging the overall environment. 

Overall, the studies reviewed do not lend themselves to simple conclusions about parenting and temperament. Even when methodological problems are taken into account, variability in findings is common, and the same temperament characteristics (e.g., negative emotionality, irritability) have been shown to be related to both ‘good’ and ‘poor’ parenting. Also, similar parenting may have different consequences for children with different temperament characteristics. 

For the purpose of this book, it is worth noticing that questions on parenting style generally require you to understand the difference between authoritative and authoritarian styles, and you would just need to learn that authoritative styles are often seen as the best approach with regard to outcomes.

Systemic theory, including supportive systems in development 

The systemic theory views families as systems that are interconnected and impact one another. This theory recognises that families are dynamic and that changes in one part of the system can impact the entire system. In the context of parenting and temperament, systemic theories recognise that a child’s temperament can impact the family system and that the family system can shape and modify the child’s temperament. 

Supportive systems play a critical role in promoting healthy development. These systems can include family members, friends, and community resources, and they provide children with a sense of security, stability, and support. In order to support families in promoting positive outcomes, it is important to identify and strengthen supportive systems.

A systemic approach to parenting and temperament can provide valuable insights into how to support families. By recognising supportive systems and addressing distorted family function, families can be helped to promote positive outcomes for their children.

Aspects of Distorted Family Function

Distorted family function refers to patterns of behaviour or communication that interfere with the functioning of the family system. Examples of distorted family function include discord, overprotection, rejection, and enmeshment: 

• Discord – Refers to conflict within the family system. This can include conflict between parents, siblings, or parents and children. Research has shown that discord can negatively impact a child’s development, including increased stress, lower self-esteem, and behavioural problems.
• Overprotection – Refers to parents who are overly involved in their children’s lives and do not allow them to take risks or make decisions independently. This type of parenting can negatively impact a child’s development by limiting their autonomy and promoting dependence.
• Rejection – Refers to parents who reject or dismiss their children’s feelings, needs, or opinions. This can lead to feelings of low self-worth and insecurity in children. 
• Enmeshment – Refers to a lack of boundaries between family members, leading to a blurring of roles and difficulties separating from one another. This type of family function can negatively impact a child’s development by limiting their independence and promoting co-dependency.

These patterns can negatively impact a child’s development, and it is important for doctors to recognise and address them in order to support families. 

Systemic theories suggest that a child’s development is not just influenced by parental attitudes and parenting practices but also by the environment and systems in which they are raised. It is important to create an environment that is supportive and nurturing and to be aware of the impact of distorted family function on a child’s temperament. By doing so, parents can help create an optimal environment for the child’s development and foster a more positive temperament.

The impact of trauma on subsequent development 

Parenting plays a crucial role in shaping a child’s development, and it is important to understand how traumatic experiences such as bereavement, divorce and intra-familial abuse can impact subsequent development. This section will address the effects of these traumatic experiences on children and the ways in which families can be supported in the aftermath of trauma.

Traumatic experiences such as bereavement, parental divorce, and intra-familial abuse can have a profound impact on children and families. As a result, children may experience a range of emotions, including sadness, anger, and confusion, and they may also experience physical symptoms such as sleep disturbances or changes in appetite.

Bereavement can have a psychological and physiological impact on the growing child. 

Parental divorce can cause disruptions in family dynamics and in the child’s development. Children of all age groups are prone to behavioural difficulties after parental divorce – this is evident even in infants who may show changes in eating, sleeping and bowel patterns, with fearful or anxious responses. Academic and social aptitude suffers due to divorce; asthma, injuries, headaches and speech defects are more common in divorced families. 

Most children adapt well to parental divorce if financial support, reasonable contact with non-custodial parents and successful remarriage of single parents take place. If not, poor academic achievement, low self-esteem, 2-3 times more antisocial behaviour and higher rates of later life depression are seen. Boys are more affected than girls due to parental divorce. Parental death has a somewhat lesser impact compared to parental conflict and separation.

Intra-familial abuse can have an immediate impact on a child’s physical and psychological health, as well as longer-term effects such as depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. 

Family instability can affect children to various extents depending on sex (boys affected more than girls), age (younger affected more than older children), and temperament (hyperactive affected more than placid). This has a demonstrable effect on a child’s cognitive achievements; the most common psychopathology noted is behavioural difficulty. 

The relevance of different family structures on family and stage of development 

Parenting practices and the experiences of families play a significant role in shaping a child’s development and temperament. Families come in all shapes and sizes, and it is important to understand the complexities of different family structures. Single-parent families, blended families, same-sex parent families, and multi-generational families are just a few examples of the diverse family structures that exist.

Cultural values and beliefs can also play a role in shaping family structures and experiences. For example, some cultures place a strong emphasis on extended family support and involvement, while others prioritise individual autonomy. 

References

•  H Breiner. (2016). Parenting Matters: Supporting Parents of Children Ages 0-8. Parenting knowledge, attitudes and practices. National Academies Press (US).
•  Gwen Dewar. (2010-2018). Parenting styles: an evidence-based, cross-cultural guide. Parenting Science. 
• Gadsden V. (2016). 1 Introduction. Parenting Matters: Supporting parents of children ages 0-8. The National Academies Press. Washington, DC. 
• AC Petersen. (2014). Describing the problem. New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research. The National Academies Press (US). 
• William Little. (2013) Chapter 14. Marriage and family. Introduction to Sociology. Rice University. 
• Rakovec-Felser. (2014). Domestic Violence and Abuse in Intimate Relationships from a public health perspective. Health Psychol Res. 2014 Nov 6; 2(3): 1821.
• Rockville (MD). (1999). Chapter 7. Brief Psychodynamic Therapy. Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for Substance Abuse. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administrations (US). 1999. 
• Putnam, Rothbart, Sanson. (2002). Child Temperament and Parenting. VL 2, Handbook of parenting.

Question references

• Purper-Ouakil D. (2017) EAS Temperament Model. In: Zeigler-Hill V., Schackelford T. (Eds) Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer, Cham. 
• McClowry SG et al. (2008). Temperament-based intervention: Re-examining goodness of fit. European Journal of Developmental Science. 2008 Jun; 2 (1-2): 120-35 
• Hertzig ME. (2012) Temperament: then and now. The Journal of nervous and mental disease. 2012 Aug; 200(8): 659-63.
• Boland R, Verduin M. (2022). Kaplan and Sadock’s Synopsis of Psychiatry, 12th edition. 2022. p. 577.